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In the history
of non-traditional learning in Japan, distance education
has made its presence felt mainly in the post-secondary
sector. Two types of distance higher education have been
established in Japan: 1) correspondence education, which
is offered as a formal mode of instruction in private
universities; and 2) the University of the Air, an independent
distance higher education institution funded by the government
that uses broadcasts as its mode of course delivery.
The expansion of distance education took place mainly
in the mid-1990s. Prior to the University of the Air,
which was established in 1985, Japan had virtually no
distance learning institutions. Since 1994, however, almost
one institution offering distance education has been established
each year. As of 2000, there were 19 four-year private
universities and ten private junior colleges, with an
enrolment of over 254,000 learners (Mombusho Ministry
of Education 1998) in correspondence programmes. The University
of the Air has also expanded substantially in terms of
student enrolments, curricular programmes and the application
of instructional devices. Figure 1 shows how dramatically
growth in enrolment at the University of the Air has increased.
Figure 1 Changes
in enrolment in the University of the Air, 1985-1999
Despite this, the number of total enrolments in distance
higher education is still low when compared with that
for conventional campus-based universities. For example,
in 1998, approximately 2.5 million students enrolled in
four-year universities, while approximately two hundred
thousand students enrolled in distance programmes. Only
8% of all undergraduate students participated in some
kind of distance learning.
Distance education as a 'distant' goal of educational
attainment
Formal education
is key to national development and cohesion. However,
distance and open learning programmes also serve to reinforce
the belief in educational attainment as a means to social
cohesion. We explore this by discussing some of the characteristics
of distant learners in Japan. As shown in Table 1a, the
late twenties and early thirties age group forms the majority
group in terms of age distribution in private correspondence
courses. It is noteworthy that 21% of students are aged
from 18 to 22, and 12% are aged 23 or 24. This means that
around 30% of students in correspondence courses are of
the same age cohort as students in conventional universities.
This 30% are mainly full-time students who are unemployed
and basically perceive some form of continuing education
to be an asset in their personal profile. It serves to
fill the gap in the otherwise difficult transition from
school to work.
Attaining or accumulating educational qualifications as
a 'reserve' for mobility is a general belief held as important
by most Japanese. The age of University of the Air students
is likely to be higher than that of students taking correspondence
courses - 30% of students are in their thirties and 20%
are in their forties. This reflects the other function
of education as a public and general good, and sets the
agenda for the kinds of educational pursuits among older
Japanese learners, which holds that learning should be
viewed not only as an exchangeable form of social capital
for material or status attainment, but also as a source
of self-enhancement and enrichment. Here, the logic of
confidence in education is consistent with the national
ideology institutionalized in all sectors and all walks
of life in Japan.
The occupational
distribution of distant learners in the two major types
of distance education institution in Japan may further
support our assumptions on how distance education has
been perceived by both the providers and consumers. As
can be seen in Table 2, in correspondence universities
students who are unemployed outnumber students who are
employed (36.5%). This is congruent with the largest proportion
of enrolment in full-time correspondence education programmes
among the 18 to mid-twenties student age cohort shown
in Table 1. However, in the University of the Air, one-third
of students are office clerks, although, here again, 'unemployed'
students also represent a large proportion of student
enrolments. Almost all unemployed students in the University
of the Air are housewives.
These differences
are also due to programmes of study and the award of a
professional licence. Correspondence universities mainly
provide programmes of study in social sciences, humanities
and education. There are no programmes in natural sciences.
Social science programmes are most popular and account
for 57% of enrolments. However, the most popular area
of study in social sciences is social welfare, in which
students can acquire a professional licence to practice.
Education courses taught at a distance can also lead to
a teaching licence, which also attracts young students.
In view of this, young student learners indeed treat distance
and correspondence education as an alternative route to
attaining an occupation. The government is the main provider
of public education to those who might have otherwise
been unsuccessful in the rigorous selection processes
for advanced formal education.
The University of the Air provides only liberal arts programmes
and courses that do not lead to an occupational licence.
This may have some bearing on the fact that over 60% of
total students are women (Hoso Daigaku Kenkyukai 1997).
Our empirical study found that the objective of many of
these students is to study for self-fulfilment and improvement.
Given the nature of learning in distance education in
which self-motivation, being a self-starter and perseverance
are emphasized as factors for success, it is not surprising
to see a low graduation rate among students enrolled in
this mode of education. Table 3 shows the number of enrolments,
entrants, graduates, and graduates who managed to complete
their degree in four years as of 1997. The number of entrants
in 1998 is just below 10% of total initial enrolments.
The graduation percentage is 60% to 70% if we take the
ratio of graduates to entrants. Of graduates, the percentage
of graduates who manage to complete their degree in four
years is 47% in correspondence universities and 24% in
the University of the Air. This suggests a high drop-out
rate and that over half of the graduates took more than
four years to acquire a Bachelor's degree.
Although the
number of graduates is small, many remain eager to continue
their studies. According to a survey of graduates of the
University of the Air, graduates, especially women, expressed
a strong desire to enter graduate schools and major preferences
were expressed that the University establish graduate
programmes of study (Hoso Daigaku Kenkyukai 1997). Another
survey has shown that 37% of undergraduate students in
correspondence universities want to enter graduate schools
in distance mode. This is especially so among students
who work as teachers, where the percentage was 67.6% in
1998 (Shiritsu Daigaku Tsusin Kyouiku Kyoukai 1998 - The
Association of University Continuing Education). This
again reflects the demand for an alternative means of
achieving a validated professional status without which
upward mobility would be impossible. Attaining a senior
teacher licence through distance education is becoming
more common among teachers as a means to gain a promotion.
These licences require completion of a Master's programme
in education. Consequently, teachers have become the largest
source of demand for the establishment of graduate programmes
of study in distance mode.
However, questions remain as to what extent and under
what circumstances educational credentials and licensing
validated by distance education authorities will enjoy
an equal status with those gained from the conventional
education and training sector. If such equity is achieved,
then conventional education and training, to which an
enormous slice of national resources has been allocated,
will surely face a serious challenge in the future. To
better understand the development and social dynamics
of this new educational movement in distance education,
we will examine in greater detail the expansion of postgraduate
or graduate training through distance education in Japan.
Changing conditions and social expectations
of the school-to-work transition
Graduate
students (working adults)
In addition to the demand among in-service teachers for
advanced training and licensing, more demand comes from
working adults who view training as the best way to upgrade
their skills and thereby, make their jobs secure. The
past decade has seen Japan in economic recession. Current
trends of liberalization, marketization, privatization
and internationalization have tended to undermine the
traditional functions of schooling and the legitimacy
of public education in Japan. In less than two decades
from now, the country will have the second largest aging
population in the world. With a record for higher education
enrolments since the Second World War, Japan has reached
a point where the government must take decisive steps
to reformulate the country's higher education policies.
One reform measure is to relax admission requirements
to degree programmes for adult graduate students. Since
1987, adult graduate students have been admitted through
a selection process different from the regular entrance
examination. Universities are also granted the option
of offering graduate programmes of study at night for
working adults. This form of graduate education should
be structured and managed at the same level and manner
as graduate schools in conventional universities, even
though the admission system and class hours are different.
Graduate students in these schools have to study on campus
while working, so the location of graduate schools for
working adults is of special relevance. The result is,
however, that only universities in big cities can establish
such programmes.
The number of students who enrol in this type of night
graduate school has been increasing, as can be seen in
Table 4. In 1997, working adults at graduate schools,
however, accounted for only 4.5% of total graduate students,
including conventional graduate schools. Of special admission
graduate students, 67.6% enrol in national universities.
Of night graduate school students, 70.4% are in private
universities. In both types, approximately 70% are in
Master's degree courses. Study programmes in social sciences
tend mostly to attract working adults.
The number of such graduate students is still small. However,
there could be a future for distance education if graduate
schools could also target working adults and provide attractive
courses and flexible learning in terms of time and place.
Government
action
The Ministry of Education has recently encouraged universities
to enlarge graduate education and plans to increase the
number of graduate intakes to 300,000 in the future. The
Ministry has, however, also been negatively disposed towards
establishing graduate schools in distance mode because
the standards and methods of assessment of quality assurance
remain debatable, and this is an important issue.
The University Council has recently discussed the possibility
of graduate schools by distance, and advised the Ministry
to establish graduate schools in distance mode. Based
on that advice, the Ministry revised regulations regarding
the establishment of graduate schools in 1998 (Standards
of Establishment of Correspondence Universities 1998).
According to the regulations, only Master's programmes
can admit students in distance mode for the purpose of
training working adults to attain advanced occupational
skills. It is recommended that graduate students be selected
through entrance examinations in each university, although
this is not expressly stipulated. This requirement that
applicants take entrance exams in distance education is
unique as it has long been a tradition in both correspondence
universities and the University of the Air to employ an
open admission policy. In addition to these examinations,
the Ministry has stipulated a teacher to student ratio
of 1:20, which is the same as in conventional graduate
schools. This does show a serious intention on the part
of the national authorities to assure and maintain the
educational quality of graduate schools in distance mode.
Characteristics of the four distance
graduate programmes
Four private universities have been approved to establish
distance graduate programmes of study based upon their
correspondence undergraduate courses in 1998. Three are
located in the Tokyo area, the other is in Kyoto. In 2001,
the University of the Air will also establish a Master's
degree programme. The characteristics of the four graduate
correspondence universities are briefly examined below.
Educational
programmes
As shown in Table 5, the educational programmes of the
four private universities are humanities, social sciences
including child studies, and education. All except Nihon
University have the same programmes at undergraduate level.
One of the characteristics of these programmes is that
professional certificates or occupational licences such
as for senior teaching positions, clinical psychologist,
or Master of Social Work, are provided in education or
social sciences courses. As shown by the survey, the demand
for graduate programmes of study among teachers is extremely
high. It has become the main attraction for teachers who
can thus upgrade their teaching credentials without having
to leave the workplace. These programmes also appear competitive
by virtue of the small quota allocated based on the regulations
on faculty and student ratios as issued by the Ministry
of Education.
Admission
All four universities that offered distance graduate programmes
conducted entrance examinations in February 1998. As expected,
the entrance examinations appeared very competitive, although
the pass ratio varied from less than 10% to over 90% among
programmes. The average pass ratio was 27%. This is quite
low compared with conventional universities. Without doubt,
the relatively small quota for each programme accounts
for the low pass rate. It also reflects the potential
demand for graduate programmes of study in distance education.
For the government, controlling the number of intakes
is perhaps the most conventional mode of assuring quality,
and is thus by no means illegitimate.
The most competitive
programmes are likely to be in education and social welfare.
As mentioned, this is because such programmes offer occupational
certificates or professional licences. The number of enrolments
in some programmes is less than the quota, although the
number of enrolments overall exceeds the quota. This suggests
that the value attached to maintaining the quality of
education is more important than the value attached to
expanding educational opportunities for the applicants.
Written exams
in the field of specialization are exemplified by working
experiences. The level of written exams is not necessarily
high compared to that of conventional graduate schools,
as reported by professors. However, applicants found it
difficult to adapt to taking examinations after having
been away from academic studies for a long time. Each
graduate school requires students to take oral examinations.
According to the professors, oral exams are useful in
assessing student's personality and potential to pursue
further study.
Student
profile
Two universities (Nihon University and Meisei University)
offer a student profile. As Table 7 shows, students are
mainly in their thirties and forties in both universities.
The number of male students is almost twice the number
of female students in Nihon University, while there are
more female than male students in Meisei University. This
difference is probably due to the graduate programmes
of study offered. Meisei University offers only education
courses, and Nihon University offers a mainly social science
curriculum. Those who categorized themselves as unemployed
tend to be housewives and a few are retirees.
Although Japan
has expanded provision of distance education beyond the
undergraduate level, the curriculum is still very much
confined to social science and humanities disciplines.
Many distance education institutions in this geographical
region have gained recognition by focusing on the training
and retraining of current employees and mature students
in practical knowledge and skills (such as IT and computing,
management, etc.). Even so, distance learning in Japan
seems to have been able to retain a 'cultural' orientation
in that the curriculum in distance education has incorporated
study areas in humanities and social sciences.
But does open learning in Japan reflect real functional
needs of the society, or does it reflect more of a changing
conception of a learning society as such is more commonly
conceived in the global environment? To respond to these
questions we will look more closely at the extent to which
IT is being used in Japan's higher education, where the
boundaries between on-campus and distance education are
becoming increasingly blurred.
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